Painting of Ancient India

• Painting as an art form has flourished in India since prehistoric times.
• Evidence of early painting traditions has been found in caves, rock shelters and literary sources.
• Indian painting reflects a continuous artistic tradition shaped by religion, culture, society, nature and regional styles.
• Over time, Indian painting absorbed new influences, yet it retained its distinct identity and traditional character.

Evolution of Indian Painting

• Indian painting is the result of the fusion of diverse artistic traditions.
• Its development has been a continuous process from prehistoric rock paintings to classical, medieval and modern styles.
• Indian painting adapted to changing social, religious and political conditions.
• Despite external influences and new trends, Indian painting preserved its aesthetic depth, symbolic meaning and cultural uniqueness.

Shadanga of Indian Art

• Shadanga literally means six limbs.
• It refers to the six traditional principles of Indian painting.
• These principles explain the basic theory, technique and aesthetic standards of Indian art.
• They guided artists in creating paintings with correct form, proportion, emotion, beauty, resemblance and colour harmony.

Six Principles of Indian Painting

Prehistoric Paintings in India

• The earliest known paintings in India belong to the Upper Palaeolithic period.
• The history of Indian art and painting begins with the prehistoric rock paintings of Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh.
• These paintings show early human life, animals, hunting scenes, community activities and symbolic patterns.
• Bhimbetka rock art is classified on the basis of style, technique and superimposition.
• Another important site of prehistoric painting is Lakhudiyar, located on the banks of the River Suyal.
• The richest prehistoric paintings have been found in the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and their extension up to the Kaimur range.

Major Sites of Prehistoric Paintings

Phases of Prehistoric Paintings

1. Upper Palaeolithic Period

• The paintings of this period are among the earliest examples of Indian art.
• They mainly show large animal figures such as bison and elephants.
• Human figures were usually drawn in simple stick-like forms.
• The paintings were mostly linear in style.
• Colours such as green and dark red were commonly used.

2. Mesolithic Period

• During the Mesolithic period, the themes of paintings became more diverse.
• The size of the paintings became smaller compared to the Upper Palaeolithic period.
• Hunting scenes became the most common theme.
• Animals such as elephants, bison, tigers, boars and deer were frequently painted.
• Birds were also shown in some paintings.
• Animals were painted in a more naturalistic style, while humans were shown in a simpler and more stylised manner.
• Community dances and group activities also became popular themes.

3. Chalcolithic Period

• In this period, prehistoric paintings began to show links with early settled life.
• The motifs found in Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings were often similar.
• Common designs included cross-hatched squares and lattice patterns.
• Paintings also depicted pottery and metal tools.
• The artists of Bhimbetka used many colours, including white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black.
• Artists painted both the walls and ceilings of rock shelters.

Overall Significance of Prehistoric Paintings

• They are the earliest visual records of human life in India.
• They show the relationship between humans and nature.
• They provide information about early hunting practices, animals, tools and community life.
• They reflect the artistic sense and symbolic thinking of prehistoric humans.
• They form the beginning of India’s long and continuous painting tradition.

Mural Painting Tradition in India

• Mural painting is known as Bhittichitra in Indian texts.

• It is a major form of Indian painting created on walls and ceilings.
• These paintings are commonly found in rock-cut caves, temples, monasteries and structural temples.
• The tradition of mural painting in India began around the 2nd century BCE and gradually spread across different regions of the country.
• Early examples of mural painting are found at Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh and Sittanavasal.
• Later, this tradition was continued by the Chalukyas of Badami, Pallavas, Cholas and Vijayanagara rulers.

Ajanta Paintings

• Ajanta is one of the most famous centres of ancient Indian mural painting.
• The paintings date from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE.
• They received patronage from the Satavahanas, Vakatakas and Guptas.
• Ajanta paintings are known for:
  • graceful human figures,
  • expressive faces,
  • delicate lines,
  • imaginative composition,
  • religious and narrative themes.
• The most famous murals include:
  • Padmapani Bodhisattva
  • Vajrapani Bodhisattva
  • Mahajanaka Jataka
  • Umaga Jataka
• The influence of the Ajanta style spread to South India and even reached Sri Lanka, continuing up to the 10th century CE.

Ellora Paintings

• Ellora caves were constructed between the 5th and 10th centuries CE.
• The complex includes 34 monasteries and temples.
• These monuments are associated with Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions.
• Mural paintings at Ellora are preserved mainly in the Kailasa Temple.
• Common themes include:
  • Vishnu and Lakshmi with Garuda
  • Flying Apsaras
  • Shaiva saints and holy men
• Ellora reflects the religious diversity and artistic richness of medieval India.

Bagh Caves

• The Bagh caves are located about 97 km from Dhar district in Madhya Pradesh.
• These caves are known for Buddhist mural paintings.
• The murals show the continuation of the early Indian painting tradition.
• They are important for understanding the spread of Buddhist art and cave painting in central India.

Badami Paintings

• Badami caves are located in Karnataka.
• The 6th-century Vishnu cave contains remains of mural paintings.
• These paintings are found on the vaulted front mandapa.
• The murals depict palace scenes and show the continuation of the mural tradition from Ajanta to South India.
• Badami paintings are important examples of early mural art under the Chalukyas.

Pallava Paintings

• The Pallavas continued the earlier Ajanta tradition of mural painting.
• Their paintings followed Ajanta in:
  • technique,
  • use of materials,
  • treatment of figures,
  • graceful composition.
• An important example of this tradition is found in the Jaina cave temple at Sittanavasal in Tamil Nadu.

 Rashtrakuta Paintings

• The Rashtrakutas contributed significantly to the mural tradition at Ellora.
• The paintings at Ellora are found on the ceilings and walls of mandapas.
• These murals mainly depict themes from the Shiva Purana.
• A special feature of these paintings is the peculiar placement of eyes and the angular form of the nose.
• These stylistic features later influenced Jain manuscript paintings of the 12th century CE.
• Rashtrakuta paintings at Ellora are considered one of the last examples of the Ajanta-style mural tradition.

 Chola Paintings

• Early Chola paintings survive in fragments at places such as Narthamalai, Malayadipatti and other regions.
• The most important example is found at the Brihadisvara Temple, Tanjore.
• The walls of the temple contain two layers of paintings.
• These paintings represent the distinct style of the South Indian mural tradition.
• Chola paintings are known for their religious themes, expressive figures and strong regional artistic character.

 Vijayanagara Paintings

• The Vijayanagara painting style continued the earlier Chola and Pandyan traditions.
• A major example is found at the Virupaksha Temple, Hampi.
• The murals at Hampi depict:
  • the procession of sage Vidyaranya,
  • Tripurantaka,
  • Narasimha,
  • the scene of Girija Kalyana.
• Vijayanagara paintings are remarkable for their narrative quality, religious themes and continuation of South Indian mural traditions.

Nayaka Paintings

• The Nayaka rulers of Madurai and Tanjore continued the Vijayanagara tradition of painting.
• Their paintings are found at Tanjore, Tenkasi and Perur.
• Nayaka paintings are known for:
  • elaborate costumes,
  • rich ornamentation,
  • decorative details,
  • inclusion of sculptural elements.
• These paintings show a more decorative and detailed phase of the South Indian mural tradition.

 Chera Paintings

• The Chera painting tradition is seen mainly in the interiors of temples and palaces.
• These interiors were decorated with colourful murals and wood carvings.
• Chera paintings were influenced by the Vijayanagara tradition, but they also developed their own vibrant expression.
• Important examples include:
  • paintings at Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Trivandrum,
  • paintings at Vadakkunatha Temple, Thrissur.

 Mysore Paintings

• The murals in and around Mysore represent the last major phase in the history of Indian mural painting.
• These paintings reflect a later continuation of the South Indian mural tradition.
• The largest mural paintings of this phase depict the Mysore war between Tipu Sultan and the British.
• Mysore paintings are important for showing the transition from traditional mural art to later historical and courtly painting traditions.

Miniature Paintings in India

• Miniature paintings originated from the tradition of illustrated manuscript painting.

• These paintings are small in size but highly detailed and refined.
• They resemble the Ajanta style, but are created on a much smaller scale.
• Miniature paintings were usually made on palm leaves, paper, cloth and manuscripts.
• Over time, this tradition developed under different dynasties and regional schools.

1. Pala Miniature Paintings

• In India, miniature painting began to develop during the Pala period from the 8th to 12th century CE.
• The Pala school was mainly associated with Buddhist religious manuscripts.
• Illustrated manuscripts on palm leaves have been discovered from places such as:
  • Nalanda
  • Kurkihar near Gaya
• These paintings were small, delicate and closely linked with religious learning and monastery culture.
• Pala miniature paintings played an important role in the early development of manuscript painting in India.

2. Persian Influence on Miniature Paintings

• During the 15th and 16th centuries, Persian influence became visible in Indian miniature paintings.
• Illustrated manuscripts with Persian elements were created in:
  • Malwa
  • Bengal
  • Delhi
  • Jaunpur
  • Gujarat
  • Deccan
• The interaction between Indian artists and Persian artistic traditions resulted in a fusion of Indian and Persian styles.
• This fusion became clearly visible in the paintings of the 16th century.
• Persian influence introduced refined detailing, decorative borders, delicate lines and courtly themes.

3. Mughal Miniature Paintings

• Miniature painting reached a new stage of development under the Mughals.
• Akbar and his successors gave strong patronage to painting.
• During this period, painting became more refined, expressive and realistic.
• Individual miniature paintings gradually became more popular than wall paintings.
• For the first time, many paintings carried inscriptions mentioning the names of painters.
• Important painters of the Mughal period included:
  • Abd-us-Samad
  • Dasawanth
  • Basawan

Jahangir’s Period

• Mughal painting reached its peak during the reign of Jahangir.
• Artists began to use vibrant colours and more refined techniques.
• Paintings started showing a greater sense of depth, realism and three-dimensional effect.
• Jahangir’s period is especially known for naturalistic portraits, court scenes, animals, birds and detailed observation of nature.

4. Regional Schools of Miniature Paintings

• During the reign of Aurangzeb, royal patronage to painting declined.
• As a result, many artists moved from the Mughal court to different regions of India.
• This movement of artists helped in the rise of several regional schools of miniature painting.
• Important regional schools included:
  • Rajasthani School
  • Pahari School
• These schools developed their own regional styles, themes, colours and techniques.
• Regional miniature paintings often depicted religious stories, court life, nature, love themes and local traditions.

Pahari Painting

• Pahari Painting is an important style of Indian miniature painting that developed in the hill regions of North India.

• Its major themes include mythology, religion, literature, court life and nature.
• The most common subject of Pahari painting is the love of Radha and Krishna.
• These paintings are known for fine lines, soft colours, expressive figures and balanced composition.
• Nature is beautifully shown through hills, rivers, trees, birds and animals in the background.
• The style became more refined in the 18th century, especially through artists like Nainsukh and his family.
• Pahari painting should not be identified only by region, as political boundaries frequently changed during that period.
• It reflects love, devotion, beauty, harmony and poetic imagination.

Major Styles of Pahari Painting

Rajasthani School of Painting

• The Rajasthani School of Painting developed between the 16th and early 19th centuries in Rajasthan and parts of present-day Madhya Pradesh.

• It was deeply rooted in Indian traditions, drawing inspiration from epics, Puranas, Sanskrit love poetry, folklore and musical themes.
• Major centres included Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur, Malwa and Sirohi.
• The school was strongly influenced by Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism.
• Krishna themes, especially episodes from his life, provided rich subject matter for painters.
• Its main features were bold drawing, strong colours, flat figures, decorative backgrounds and emotional expression.
• Mughal influence is visible in refined drawing, naturalistic trees and improved treatment of figures.
• Paintings were made on paper, ivory and silk.
• Common themes included Ramayana, Krishna legends, royal life, social values and court culture.

Major Styles of Rajasthani Painting

Folk Paintings in India

• Folk painting traditions in India developed in different regions according to local geography, climate, customs and cultural practices.

• These paintings reflect the everyday life, religious beliefs, festivals, myths and social traditions of local communities.
• Most folk paintings use natural colours, traditional symbols and region-specific styles.

Major Folk Paintings of India

Rise of Modern Painting in India

1. Background

• Modern Indian painting began to develop during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
• In this phase, Indian painting came under the influence of European techniques due to British presence.
• Paintings of this period showed a blend of Indian subjects and Western artistic style.
• Over time, modern Indian painting moved from traditional and courtly themes to social, nationalist, political and individual expressions.

2. Company School of Painting

• The early phase of modern Indian painting is often associated with the Company School.
• These paintings were patronised by British officials, residents and visitors.
• Indian artists adopted European techniques but continued to paint Indian subjects.

Major Themes

• Indian social life
• Festivals and customs
• Mughal architecture
• Natural history
• Portraits of British officers and Indian elites

Important Examples

3. European-Style Art Schools

• In the late 19th century, European-style art schools were established in major Indian cities.
• Important centres were- Calcutta , Bombay and  Madras
• These schools introduced:
  • oil painting,
  • portrait painting,
  • realism,
  • academic art training,
  • European methods of shading and perspective.

4. Raja Ravi Varma

• Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore became one of the most popular painters of modern India.
• He used European oil painting techniques to represent Indian themes.
• His paintings mainly depicted:
  • mythological stories,
  • gods and goddesses,
  • scenes from epics,
  • social themes.
• He made Indian mythological art popular among the masses.

5. Bengal School of Art

• The Bengal School of Art emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against Western academic art.
• It was associated with the spirit of cultural nationalism.
• Artists rejected Western style and tried to revive an Indian style of painting.
• They took inspiration from:
  • Ajanta paintings,
  • Indian traditions,
  • spiritual themes,
  • natural colours.

Important Personalities

• Rabindranath Tagore
• Nandalal Bose

Key Features

• Use of natural and powder colours
• Soft lines and delicate treatment
• Indian spiritual and cultural themes
• Opposition to colonial artistic dominance

6. Rabindranath Tagore and Amrita Sher-Gil

• Rabindranath Tagore gave Indian art a universal and experimental expression.
• Amrita Sher-Gil introduced a modern vision in Indian painting.
• Their works connected Indian themes with wider human and artistic concerns.

7. Calcutta Group

• In 1943, the Calcutta Group was formed.
• It was led by artists such as:
  • Paritosh Sen
  • Nirode Majumdar
  • Pradosh Dasgupta
• This group used new techniques and visual language.
• Their paintings reflected the condition, suffering and struggles of Indian people.

8. Progressive Artists’ Group, Bombay

• In 1948, the Progressive Artists’ Group was formed in Bombay.
• It was founded under the leadership of Francis Newton Souza.
• This group broke away from the Bengal School tradition.
• It represented the bold and modern art of independent India.
• It promoted:
  • artistic freedom,
  • experimentation,
  • modern themes,
  • individual expression.

9. Themes in the 1970s

• By the 1970s, Indian artists began focusing on contemporary social and political issues.
• Their themes included:
  • poverty,
  • corruption,
  • political instability,
  • communal tension,
  • social inequality,
  • everyday struggles.

10. Madras School of Art

• The Madras School of Art became an important centre of modern art after independence.
• It developed under the influence of:
  • Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury
  • K.C.S. Paniker
• It influenced a new generation of modern Indian artists.