Six Philosophies of Ancient India

03 Jul, 2026 Samyak IAS

Meaning of Indian Philosophy

Philosophy in India emerged as an enquiry into the mystery of life, existence, truth and reality.
Indian philosophy refers to different traditions of philosophical thought that developed in the Indian subcontinent.
Over time, India’s intellectual search for truth came to be represented through six major systems of philosophy.

Six Orthodox Systems of Indian Philosophy

System of Philosophy	Founder / Sage
Vaisheshika	Kanada
Nyaya	Gautama
Samkhya	Kapila
Yoga	Patanjali
Purva Mimansa	Jaimini
Vedanta / Uttara Mimansa	Vyasa

These six systems developed over many generations with the contribution of several thinkers.
Although they appear different in approach, they show an underlying harmony in their search for truth.
These philosophies continue to guide intellectual, religious and scholarly discussions in India.

Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

Orthodox schools are also known as Astika schools.
They accept the authority of the Vedas.
These schools are associated with the broader tradition of Sanatana Dharma, which is commonly referred to as Hinduism in modern times.
The six orthodox schools are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta.

1. Samkhya Philosophy

Founder: Kapila

Samkhya is considered one of the oldest orthodox systems of Indian philosophy.
It explains reality through two fundamental principles:
- Purusha – self, soul or consciousness.
- Prakriti – matter, nature, creative energy.
According to Samkhya, all worldly existence evolves from the interaction of Purusha and Prakriti.
Purusha is eternal and unchanging.
Prakriti is dynamic and responsible for change in the material world.
Samkhya mainly focuses on understanding the difference between consciousness and matter.

2. Yoga Philosophy

Founder: Patanjali

Yoga literally means union.
It aims at the union of the individual self with higher consciousness.
Yoga provides practical methods to control the body, mind and sense organs.
It is regarded as a means to attain freedom or mukti.
Yoga accepts the existence of God as a teacher and guide.

Eightfold Path of Yoga

Stage	Meaning
Yama	Self-control
Niyama	Observance of rules
Asana	Fixed bodily postures
Pranayama	Control of breath
Pratyahara	Withdrawal of senses
Dharana	Fixing the mind on an object
Dhyana	Concentration or meditation
Samadhi	Complete union of the self with the object of meditation

3. Nyaya Philosophy

Founder: Gautama Muni

Nyaya philosophy is based on logic, reasoning and valid knowledge.
It states that nothing should be accepted unless it is supported by reason and experience.
Therefore, Nyaya is often considered a system of logical and analytical thinking.
It follows a scientific approach to understand reality.

Four Sources of Valid Knowledge According to Nyaya

Source	Meaning
Perception	Knowledge gained through direct observation
Inference	Knowledge gained through reasoning
Comparison	Knowledge gained through similarity or analogy
Verbal Testimony	Knowledge gained through reliable words or authority

4. Vaisheshika Philosophy

Founder: Kanada

Vaisheshika is a realistic and objective philosophy of the universe.
It believes that all physical objects are made up of a finite number of atoms.
It regards Brahman as the fundamental force that gives consciousness to atoms.
According to this philosophy, reality can be understood through different categories.

Categories of Reality in Vaisheshika

Category	Meaning
Substance	Basic material existence
Attribute	Quality of a substance
Action	Movement or activity
Genus	General class or category
Distinct Quality	Particular distinguishing feature
Inherence	Permanent relation between things

Vaisheshika thinkers believed that the universe is composed of five elements:
- Earth
- Water
- Fire
- Air
- Ether
They believed in God as the guiding principle.
They also accepted the law of karma, according to which beings are rewarded or punished on the basis of their actions.
The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools later came closer due to their similar metaphysical ideas.
Vaisheshika accepted only perception and inference as valid sources of knowledge.

5. Purva Mimansa Philosophy

Founder: Jaimini

Purva Mimansa gives central importance to the Vedas.
It believes that the Vedas are eternal and contain complete knowledge.
According to this philosophy, religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
It gives great importance to rituals, duties and dharma.
The essence of the Vedas is considered to be dharma.
By performing dharma, a person earns merit, which leads to heaven after death.
Purva Mimansa is closely associated with the ritualistic interpretation of the Vedas.

6. Vedanta Philosophy

Founder: Vyasa

Vedanta is also known as Uttara Mimansa.
It mainly focuses on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads.
Unlike Purva Mimansa, which emphasises rituals, Vedanta gives importance to spiritual knowledge and ultimate reality.
Vedanta discusses the relationship between:
- Atman – individual self.
- Brahman – supreme reality.
- World – material existence.
Vedanta later developed into several sub-schools.

Major Sub-Schools of Vedanta

Sub-School	Thinker	Main Idea
Advaita	Adi Shankara	Atman and Brahman are one and the same. Realisation of this truth leads to liberation.
Vishishtadvaita	Ramanuja	Brahman is one, but includes diversity within itself. The individual soul and world are parts of Brahman.
Dvaita	Madhvacharya	Brahman and Atman are completely different. Bhakti is the path to salvation.
Dvaitadvaita	Nimbarka	Brahman is the highest reality and the controller of all. The soul is both dependent on and distinct from Brahman.
Shuddhadvaita	Vallabhacharya	God and the individual self are essentially the same and not separate.
Achintya Bheda Abheda	Chaitanya Mahaprabhu	The individual self is both different and non-different from Brahman in an inconceivable way.

Conclusion

Indian philosophy represents a deep and systematic search for truth, reality, knowledge, duty and liberation.
The six orthodox schools accept the authority of the Vedas, but each follows a distinct method of enquiry.
Together, they form the foundation of India’s philosophical and spiritual tradition.

Unorthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

The schools of Indian philosophy that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are known as Unorthodox or Nastika schools.
These schools are also called Heterodox schools of Indian philosophy.
The major unorthodox schools are Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism.

School of Philosophy	Founder / Main Thinker	Key Features
Charvaka / Lokayata	Brihaspati	Charvaka is a materialistic, sceptical and atheistic school of thought. It does not believe in life after death, soul, heaven or any other world. According to this philosophy, death is the end of human existence and pleasure is the ultimate goal of life. It is also known as Lokayata philosophy, meaning the philosophy of the common people or masses.
Buddhist Philosophy	Siddhartha Gautama	Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy. It does not give central importance to the existence or non-existence of God. Buddha regarded the world as full of suffering and taught that human beings should seek liberation from this suffering. He rejected blind faith, ritualism and the unquestioned authority of traditional scriptures such as the Vedas.
Jain Philosophy	Mahavira	Jain philosophy gives importance to anekantavada, which means that reality can be understood from many different viewpoints. According to Jainism, no single viewpoint can express the complete truth. Only Kevalins, or those who possess infinite knowledge, can know reality completely, while ordinary people can know only a partial aspect of truth.