Geography 

A Konkan secret, the flat-top sada is a freshwater paradise - The Hindu

• Location: Between the Arabian Sea & Western Ghats, known for its beaches and temples.
• Landscape: Transition from tall mountain ranges to flat-topped hills (sada).
• Characteristics of Sada:
  • Barren most of the year, transformed during monsoons.
  • Similar to pathar in Satara, like the Kaas Plateau.
  • Rocky terrain supporting unique endemic flora.
• Biodiversity: Documented 459 plant species, 105 endemic to Konkan.
• Recorded fauna:
  • 31 reptile species.
  • 13 amphibian species.
  • 169 bird species.
  • 41 mammal species.
• Agriculture: Monsoon farming on small sada patches for rice and millets using pesticide-free practices.
• Ecosystem Services:
  • Freshwater availability year-round due to lateritic soil acting as a rainwater catchment.
  • Wells, springs, and streams maintained through community rituals.
• Cultural and Ecological Importance:
  • Hosts geoglyphs (~10,000 years old).
  • Waterbodies support species like Indian flapshell turtle, leopards, jackals, and migratory birds.
• Threats:
  • Conversion to orchards, residential areas, and developmental projects.
  • Mining of laterite stones.
  • Misclassification as ‘wasteland’ in Wasteland Atlas.

World Affairs 

What led to the Azerbaijan Airlines jet crash? - The Hindu

In December last year, an Azerbaijan Airlines flight, 4K-AZ65 with 67 passengers and crew, faced serious technical difficulties. There was another diversion to Aktau in Kazakhstan by the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, but the plane impacted the ground about three kilometres from Aktau’s airport, and 38 passengers were killed. 

Accidents on Conflict Zones

• Complexities in Operating Flights in Conflict Zones: Civilian flights in conflict zones face risks from hostilities.
• State Responsibility: States bear responsibility for aviation safety under the Chicago Convention.
• Signal Interference: Spoofing and jamming disrupt navigation and communication systems, including GPS and ADS-B.
• ICAO Role: ICAO supports accident investigations under Annex 13 guidelines.

GPS Interference Hotspots

• GPS jamming: Black Sea region.
• GPS spoofing: Iraq, Ukraine, Russia, and the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Nation-State Involvement in Air Accidents

• 1954: Cathay Pacific shot down by China.
• 1973: Libyan Arab Airlines flight 114 downed by Israel.
• 1983: Korean Airlines flight 007 shot by the Soviet Union.
• 1988: Iran Air flight 655 downed by the U.S.
• 1988: Pan Am flight 103 bombed by Libyan agents.
• 2001: Sibir Airlines flight 1812 shot by Ukraine.
• 2014: Malaysia Airlines flight MH17.

Legal Issues in Aviation Incidents

• Responsibility: Issues of responsibility, regulation, and compensation in international aviation.
• Montreal Convention: Governs liability for damages but is complicated by state involvement.
• Eclipse: State accountability under international law supersedes the Montreal Convention in cases of state involvement.
• International Humanitarian Law: Chicago Convention bans weapon use against civil aircraft.

Recommendations:

• Codified regulations for international civil aviation.
• Enhanced global liability frameworks.
• Strengthened international legal cooperation.

Issues in India-Bangladesh row over fencing of international border - Indian Express

New Delhi recently summoned the Bangladesh Acting High Commissioner to India, Nural Islam, over “security measures at the border, including on fencing”.

Fencing Disputes 

• Malda: India built a single-row fence (SRF) adjacent to Bangladesh’s Shibganj, Rajshahi district. Bangladesh Border Guards (BGB) objected.
• Cooch Behar: Villagers in Mekhliganj, supported by BSF, started fencing near the Bangladeshi enclave Dahagram-Angarpota. BGB intervened.

 India-Bangladesh Border Guidelines

• 1975 Guidelines: Prohibit construction of defence structures within 150 yards of the zero line by either side.
• India’s stand: India excludes wire fencing from the definition of defence structures; Bangladesh and Pakistan include it.
• Border Complexity: Approximately 2,217 km of the border in West Bengal includes villages within the fencing line.
• Challenges in Fencing: Terrain and population issues.
• Gate Facilities: Gates provided for resident movement in fenced areas.
• Negotiations: Construction begins only after mutual agreement with Border Guard Bangladesh (BGB).

Reasons for the Dispute

• Bangladesh's Objections: Fencing disrupts daily lives of border residents.
• Single Row Fencing (SRF): For controlling animal movement and reducing trans-border crimes; not defence structures.
• Bangladesh's Security Concerns: Objects to SRF and "smart fencing" within 100 yards of the border.
• Crime Prevention Goal: 60% of trans-border crimes occur in areas without fencing or at villages on the border.

Status of Fencing

• Total Fencing: 3,141 km of the 4,156 km India-Bangladesh border.
• Challenges: Hindrances include non-cooperation from West Bengal and pending land acquisition.
• Unfenced Areas: Due to village objections, terrain, or ongoing negotiations.

Environment 

Rat-hole mining: why the practice continues in spite of its hazards - The Hindu

An oral question from the Supreme Court to the Union government remains unanswered even as rescue workers recovered bodies of four workers from a flooded rat-hole coal mine in Dima Hasao district of Assam.

Rat-Hole Mining 

• About: Illegal and hazardous coal extraction method in Meghalaya and some northeastern states.
• Mechanism: 
  • Involves narrow, horizontal tunnels, often barely large enough for one person. 
  • Miners use ropes or bamboo ladders for access, working in cramped, poorly ventilated conditions with basic tools.
• Mining Types:
  • Side-Cutting Procedure: Narrow tunnels dug into hill slopes to access thin coal seams.
  • Box-Cutting: Rectangular opening followed by a vertical pit and horizontal rat-hole tunnels for coal extraction.
• Geographical Spread: Predominantly in Meghalaya.
• Causes of Rat-Hole Mining
• Poverty: Limited livelihood options in the north-east.
  • Land Ownership Issues: Ambiguous land titles.
  • Coal Demand: Continuous demand for coal, both legal and illegal.
  • Middlemen and illegal traders: They perpetuate the cycle.
• Issues: 
  • Danger to Life: Tunnels prone to collapse, causing fatalities.
  • Environmental Damage: Deforestation, erosion, & water contamination.
  • Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): Causes water quality degradation and reduced biodiversity.

Why India is warming slower - Indian Express

The annual mean temperature of the world is known to have increased by 1.1 degree Celsius from the average of the 1850-1900 period. But this increase, as can be expected, is not uniform.

Global Temperature Increase

• Global Mean Temperature:
  • Increased by 1.1°C from 1850-1900 average.
  • Increase varies regionally and seasonally.
• Temperature Rise over Land vs Oceans:
  • Land: Increased by 1.59°C since preindustrial times.
  • Oceans: Increased by 0.88°C.
• Temperature Rise in India
  • Annual mean temperature increased by 0.7°C since 1900.
  • Lower than the global land temperature rise (1.59°C).
  • Climate change issue is still significant despite the lower rise.

Reasons for Lower Warming in India

• Geographical Factors: Warming is more prominent in higher altitudes and near polar regions than at the equator. India, lies in the tropical region.
• Polar Warming: Arctic region has warmed twice as much as the global average due to albedo effect, ice melting, and exposure of land/water.
• Albedo Effect: Melting ice in the Arctic exposes more land/water, trapping more heat.

Higher Warming Over Land than Oceans

• Comparison with Land Areas: India's temperature rise of 0.7°C is lower than the 1.59°C rise over land areas globally.
• Land vs Ocean Heating: Land heats faster and more intensely than oceans due to differences in heat capacities.
• Physical Processes: Longer-term land warming is influenced by complex interactions between land, ocean, and atmosphere.

Impact of Aerosols

• Aerosols: Particles suspended in the atmosphere affecting local temperatures by scattering sunlight and influencing cloud formation.
• Aerosol Concentration in India:
• Aerosols may reduce warming by 0.1 to 0.2°C in India.
• Reducing aerosols may accelerate temperature rise.
• Trends: Maximum temperatures in India have risen significantly since 1900, while minimum temperatures have shown little increase.

Science and Technology 

What is the Genome India project? Why does it matter? - Indian Express

The Department of Biotechnology recently announced its new platform and framework for sharing its 10,000 human genome dataset. The sequences of healthy individuals — from 99 ethnic populations of the country — has helped create a baseline map of India’s genetic diversity.

Genome Sequencing

• Human Genome: Genetic instruction manual inherited from parents, governing body development, traits, & predispositions to diseases.
• Composition: Has ~ 3 bn base pairs made from 4 bases: A, C, G, & T.
• Sequencing Process:
  • Genome information is extracted from blood.
  • The genome is cut into smaller pieces, each tagged for easier handling.
  • A sequencer decodes the smaller pieces, which are then reassembled to form the complete genome.

Genome India Project

• Objective: To capture India's genetic diversity, its varied geography, languages, food, culture, and populations.
• Progress: Approved in 2020, with 20 scientific institutions collaborating.

Benefits 

• Genetic Disease Understanding: Helps identify genetic risk factors for diseases.
• Identification of New Variants: 135 million genetic variations identified, 7 million not found in global databases.
• Disease Frequency: Sequencing reveals the prevalence of genetic variations causing diseases. 
• Rare Disease Identification: Helps identify rare diseases and develop gene therapies for them.
• Resistance to Medicines: Identifies genetic variants affecting drug efficacy, e.g., resistance to anaesthetics in some South Indian communities.

Second Phase of the Genome India Project

• Objective: Sequence genomes of individuals with specific diseases to identify genes responsible for or predisposing to diseases.
• Diseases to be Included: Cancers, chronic conditions (e.g., diabetes), neurological/neurodegenerative diseases, and rare diseases.

Global Genome Sequencing Projects

• Human Genome Project: Published the first complete human genome in 2003 through international collaboration.
• 1,000 Genome Project: Published 1,092 sequences in 2012.
• UK 100,000 Genomes Project: Sequenced 100,000 genomes by 2018.
• European Project: Aimed to sequence 1+ million genomes across 24 countries.